aHEAD IN THE GAME

Of all the places I lived, Philadelphia, Greenville, Gdansk, my favorite place to live is in delusion. Believe it or not, it’s completely healthy…kinda. More athletes should choose to live in their own made-up worlds; I guess the politically correct term for what I’m referring to is imagery. Imagery has emerged as a widely researched mental skill due to its cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences. As a result, many have targeted imagery as a mechanism to improve athletic performance. To do this we first have to understand what imagery is and the pathways by which it works.

To those who say imagery is “imagining” something… I would say, “thank you, genius…” Though that elementary definition isn’t 100% wrong, it implies day-dreaming. But imagery isn’t what you’re doing when your coach is on minute 45 of the pregame talk. That’s too free. Imagery is much more pointed and planned; there’s a clear purpose to the mental picture you are creating. Imagery also isn’t 100% visual. True, that aspect is crucial, but it’s more complicated. Decisions on the field aren’t just influenced by what we see. Think about your actual performance. Your actions were guided by your environment, your thoughts, and your emotions, weren’t they? Imagery accounts for this. It’s meant to be a multi-sensory practice. When I practice imagery, I consciously call attention to what I might be feeling in that moment. And it’s not always the cookie-cutter, perfect “what-I-should-be-feeling” feelings. It’s important to be as close to reality as possible. If I’m about to go up against a good striker I’ll call attention to my nerves before the game, how I might feel after I get beat, the doubt that creeps into my head when I don’t make a tackle, the sound of heckling fans, or how the ball feels against my foot if I fuck up a pass. Of course, I mostly incorporate positive things. But, those negative things happen. I have to be ready when they do. When I imagine potential negatives, I immediately follow-up with envisioning appropriate, productive responses.

Ok, so I think we’ve gotten to the point where we can at least put together a definition of what imagery is. I would say that it is a deliberate, planned, multi-sensory, mental mapping of an event. Which is a really fancy way of saying imagery isn’t just about letting your mind wander, or just seeing something in your brain; it’s about getting as close to the full experience without actually physically participating.  

To the surprise of absolutely no one, the idea of training without actually physically training has sparked interest. In university, I was introduced to two theories which attempt to illustrate the pathways/mechanisms by which imagery brings about certain outcomes. The first is the Applied Model of Imagery Use introduced in 1999 by Martin et al. It proposes that there are varying types, functions, and outcomes of imagery. For the best results, the individual should choose the imagery type and function that matches the desired outcome. In 1985, Paivio asserted that imagery can serve cognitive and motivational functions and could further be classified as specific or general. Later, it was added that motivational imagery could be even further divided into arousal and mastery subdivisions. I know, it’s getting a little confusing, but stick with me here. Let me introduce five main types of imagery; I want to stress that this is in no way a comprehensive list (there are arguably more types) I just think this is a good place to start.

Cognitive Specific: imaging of specific skills

Cognitive General: imaging of tactics/strategies, routines

Motivational Specific: imaging of achieving specific goals

Motivational General Mastery: imaging of feelings and emotions

Motivational General Arousal: imaging of overcoming/coping with a difficult situation

Like I mentioned before, the applied imagery model breaks down imaging into its different types, functions, and outcomes. I’ve listed the imagery types. In terms of function, imagery be cognitive or motivational.

Cognitive functions for imagery include learning how to properly perform skills and tasks (Cognitive Specific) and better understanding strategies and tactics (Cognitive General).

Motivational functions of imagery serve to help athletes remain focused by enhancing efficient thought processes and managing emotions.

More specifically, the function of motivation specific imaging is to prepare athletes for the journey of achieving their goals. Motivational general mastery functions to help athletes deal with inevitable ups and downs. The function of motivational general arousal imaging is to help athletes regulate emotional and physiological changes; basically, it’s used to maintain composure. 

There are three main outcomes of imagery: skill/strategy acquisition, changing thoughts, emotional and arousal regulation. According to the model, an individual should align the imagery type and function with the appropriate outcomes. Cumming & Ramsey put it succinctly; imagery operates on a “what you see is what you get” principle. Honestly, I can’t really think of a better way to put it. What you image is what will happen. So, let’s say I want to learn how to drive a ball with my left foot. The type of imagery I would use would be cognitive specific, because driving the ball is a specific skill. The function of imagery I would use would also be cognitive specific. As a result, I could expect the outcome to be that I would acquire the skill of driving the ball with my weak foot.  

Like Cummings & Ramsey proposed, the applied imagery model kind of explains why imagery works, the pathway to certain outcomes. The other model I was introduced to in university, the PETTLEP model, explains more of the how imagery works. Basically the model proposes that areas of the brain activated during physical practice are also activated through imagery. The degree to which imagery is effective is related to the similarity and quality of these activated areas as compared to physical practice. There are seven aspects of the model each represented by a letter in the name. For imagery to be most effective, each imaged aspect should match up as closely as possible to the corresponding aspect of the actual performance.

Let’s take the physical aspect, for example. If I am trying to image playing a driven pass on the soccer field, I should assume the proper posture for that skill, toe down, ankle locked, chest over the ball etc. In terms of the environmental aspect, images should consider the surroundings of the athlete; this aspect of imaging is multisensory. If I’m trying to get better at soccer, imagery should take place on a soccer field..duh. I should consider what it feels like to be outside, what I hear during competition, what I feel, smells even. You should consider every aspect of the environment. Obviously, this is not always possible, so things like videos may have to suffice. The task and timing aspects of the model refer to matching the imaged and physical task and the speed and necessary procedures/order of events for performing the task. In terms of the learning, imagery should reflect the individual’s current level. For example, I wouldn’t imagine myself scorpion kicking the ball upper 90 because that is quite literally not in my arsenal at all. I wouldn’t be able to create an accurate mental picture of me performing the skills since I have no experience or ability to complete the skills; it literally wouldn’t make sense. In terms of emotion, imagery should reflect what the arousal level of the athlete would be during the desired task. Lastly, the athlete should consider the perspective of their images. For example, are they imaging themselves in first-person view or third person? There’s a lot of research on which is better. Maybe this is where the applied model and the PETTLEP model intertwine. Perhaps the most productive perspective is relative to the desired outcome of the image. If skill acquisition is the outcome perhaps imagery where you are “watching yourself” would be better so that you can observe body position and things like that. Whereas, if the goal is more motivational in nature feeling immersed in the moment, a first-person shooter mode perhaps, would be better.  

Taken together the applied imagery and the PETTLEP model work together to explain how to imagery works and the best ways to achieve certain outcomes. In my opinion, the underlying premise in both is specificity. An athlete should consider every possible aspect of their performance and include these elements in their image. However, even I must admit that specificity of the image depends on other factors. Imagery ability and personal meaning can play a role in how imagery works. Imagery ability refers to how clearly an individual can see the image, and how well they can control it, (is the person performing the desired action in the image). Additionally, I can admit that the “what you see is what you get principle” isn’t always true. There are always additional side effects. For example, cognitive specific imagery that aids in skill acquisition can also improve psychological measures such as self-efficacy. Additionally, imagery has been shown to be related to reduced anxiety and increased motivation.

We know what imagery is, we know how it works. So why is it so helpful? One of my favorite things about imagery, and the reason I incorporate it into my collection of mental skills, is its effects on…EFFICACY. That’s right, I know you all thought I was done. Here I am again talking about self-efficacy. As we know by now there are four sources of efficacy: past performances, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. Personally, I see how imagery bolsters each and every one of these sources. For example, when fully immersing yourself in a mental picture of your previous performances you are in essence re-living your successes. When you use a different view of imagery and “watch yourself” compete, I think you are appealing to vicarious experiences. Athletes that appeal to the motivational general mastery and arousal types of imagery may use it to bolster productive thought processes. As a result, imagery may be combined with a self-talk component, which serves the verbal persuasion source of efficacy. Finally, motivational general imagery focuses on helping athletes regulate their emotional states; athletes who depend on this type of imagery are able to better manage and positively interpret symptoms of arousal appealing to the final source of efficacy. By no means am I saying that these assertions explain the relationship between imagery and efficacy. Above, is just my opinion. However, the relationship between the two has been supported by research.  

Overall, imagery has been shown to reduce anxiety and increase motivation, efficacy, and focus. It’s a multi-sensory practice that, when done intentionally, can aid in skill acquisition, emotional and arousal regulation, and attentional focused which can result in better performance. These outcomes can be achieved by activating similar neural pathways as physical practice. Research supports that more successful athletes have better imagery ability and use imagery more often than their less successful counterparts. So, if you really think about it I was completely correct. Living in delusion is 100% necessary for being a good athlete. Being delulu is ALWAYS the solulu.